The observed relationships between alcohol consumption and diseases are often non-linear, with low-to-moderate alcohol consumption being protective and heavy alcohol consumption being harmful ( 6, 7). During the pandemic, although epidemiological characteristics and risk factors (e.g., age, obesity, and lifestyle factors) of COVID-19 have been rapidly reported ( 1– 5), the risk or protective factors for COVID-19 infection are largely unknown.Īdverse effects of alcohol consumption have been widely documented. As of November 20, 2021, more than 257 million COVID-19 cases and 5.2 million deaths have been reported worldwide ( ). Public health guidance should focus on reducing the risk of COVID-19 by advocating healthy lifestyle habits and preferential policies among consumers of beer and cider and spirits.Ĭoronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has revealed how readily viruses spread in our interconnected world. Consumption of beer and cider and spirits and heavy drinking are not recommended during the epidemics. Red wine, white wine, and champagne have chances to reduce the risk of COVID-19. Alcohol drinker status, frequency, amount, and subtypes of alcoholic beverages were not associated with COVID-19 associated mortality.Ĭonclusions: The COVID-19 risk appears to vary across different alcoholic beverage subtypes, frequency, and amount. The generalized additive model showed an increased risk of COVID-19 with a greater number of alcohol consumption. High frequency of consumption of spirits (≥5 glasses/week) within guidelines increased the COVID-19 risk, whereas the high frequency of consumption of white wine and champagne above the guidelines decreased the COVID-19 risk. Low-frequency of consumption of fortified wine (1–2 glasses/week) within guidelines had a protective effect against the COVID-19. Consumption of beer and cider increased the COVID-19 risk, regardless of the frequency and amount of alcohol intake. Consumption of red wine above or double above the guidelines played protective effects against the COVID-19. Results: Subjects who consumed alcohol double above the guidelines had a higher risk of COVID-19 (1.12 ). The non-linearity association between the amount of alcohol consumption and COVID-19 risk was evaluated by a generalized additive model. Multivariate logistic regression analyses were used to evaluate the associations of alcohol consumption with COVID-19 risk and associated mortality. Methods: This study included 473,957 subjects, 16,559 of whom tested positive for COVID-19. Objectives: To evaluate the associations of status, amount, and frequency of alcohol consumption across different alcoholic beverages with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) risk and associated mortality.
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